Abstract
A broad range of embedded networked sensing (ENS) applications have appeared for large-scale systems, introducing new requirements leading to new embedded architectures, associated algorithms, and supporting software systems. These new requirements include the need for diverse and complex sensor systems that present demands for energy and computational resources, as well as for broadband communication. To satisfy application demands while maintaining critical support for low-energy operation, a new multiprocessor node hardware and software architecture, Low Power Energy Aware Processing (LEAP), has been developed. In this article, we described the LEAP design approach, in which the system is able to adaptively select the most energy-efficient hardware components matching an application’s needs. The LEAP platform supports highly dynamic requirements in sensing fidelity, computational load, storage media, and network bandwidth. It focuses on episodic operation of each component and considers the energy dissipation for each platform task by integrating fine-grained energy-dissipation monitoring and sophisticated power-control scheduling for all subsystems, including sensors. In addition to the LEAP platform’s unique hardware capabilities, its software architecture has been designed to provide an easy way to use power management interface and a robust, fault-tolerant operating environment and to enable remote upgrade of all software components. LEAP platform capabilities are demonstrated by example implementations, such as a network protocol design and a light source event detection algorithm. Through the use of a distributed node testbed, we demonstrate that by exploiting high energy-efficiency components and enabling proper on-demand scheduling, the LEAP architecture may meet both sensing performance and energy dissipation objectives for a broad class of applications.
- ACPI. 2005. Advanced Configuration and Power Interface Specification. http://www.acpi.info/.Google Scholar
- Agre, J., Clare, L., Pottie, G., and Romanov, N. 1999. Development platform for self-organizing wireless sensor networks, Pro. SPIE, 3713, 1, 257--268.Google Scholar
- Akyildiz, I. F., Su, W., Sankarasubramaniam, Y., and Cayirci, E. 2002. Wireless sensor networks: A survey. Comput. Net. 38, 4, 393--422. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Anand, M., Nightingale, E. B., and Flinn, J. 2004. Ghosts in the machine: Interfaces for better power management. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Arzberger, P., Bonner, J., Fries, D. and Sanderson, A. 2004. Sensors for environmental observatories. In Proceedings of the Report of the NSF Sponsored Workshop. http://www.wtec.org/seo/final/2004.Google Scholar
- Asada, G., Dong, M., Lin, T. S., Newberg, F., Pottie, G., Kaiser, W. J., and Marcy, H. O. 1998. Wireless integrated network sensors: Low power systems on a chip. In Proceedings of the European Solid State Circuits Conference.Google Scholar
- Atmel. 2007. megaAVR Family Microcontrollers. http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/devices.asp?family_id=607#760.Google Scholar
- Bacaud, L., Lemarchal, C., Renaud, A. and Sagastizbal, C. 2001. Bundle methods in stochastic optimal power management: A disaggregated approach using preconditioners. Comput. Optim. Appl. 20, 3, 227--244. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Bajura, M., Schott, B., Flidr, J., Czarnaski, J., Worth, C., Tho, T., and Wang, L. 2005. An Integrated, Modular, Power-Aware Microsensor Architecture and Application to Unattended Acoustic Vehicle Tracking. Proc. SPIE, 5796, 282--293.Google Scholar
- Banerjee, N., Sorber, J., Corner, M., Rollins, S., and Ganesan, D. 2005. Triage: A power-aware software architecture for tiered microservers. Tech. Rep. 05--22. University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, MA.Google Scholar
- Banga, G., Druschel, P., and Mogul, J. C. 1999. Resource containers: A new facility for resource management in server systems. In Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation, 45--58. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Batalin, M., Sukhatme, G. S., Yu, Y., Rahimi, M. H., Hansen, M., Pottie, G., Kaiser, W., and Estrin, D. 2004. Call and response: Experiments in sampling the environment. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (Sensys). Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Bellosa, F. 2000. The benefits of event: Driven energy accounting in power-sensitive systems. In Proceedings of the 9th ACM SIGOPS European Workshop: Beyond the PC: New challenges for the operating system. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Benini, L., Bogliolo, A., and De Micheli, G. 2000. A survey of design techniques for system-level dynamic power management. IEEE Trans. 8, 3, 299--316. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Benini, L., Castelli, G., Macii, A., Macii, E., and Scarsi, R. 2000. Battery-driven dynamic power management of portable systems. In Proceedings of the 13th international symposium on System Synthesis. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Benini, L. and Micheli, G. D. 1998. Dynamic Power Management: Design Techniques and CAD Tools. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Bult, K. et al. 1996. Low power systems for wireless microsensors. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design (ISLPED). Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Carl, A. W. and William, E. W. 1994. Lottery scheduling: Flexible proportional-share resource management. In Proceedings of the 1st USENIX Conference on Operating Systems Design and Implementation. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Chandrakasan, A. P. and Brodersen, R. W. 1995. Low Power Digital CMOS Design. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Crossbow. 2004. MICAZ Wireless Management System Datasheet. http://xbow.com.cn/wsn/pdf/MICAZ.pdf.Google Scholar
- Crossbow. 2007. MICAz Mote. http://bullseye.xbow.com:81/Products/productdetails.aspx?sid=164.Google Scholar
- Dexin, L., Pai, H. C., and Nader, B. 2002. Mode selection and mode-dependency modeling for power-aware embedded systems. In Proceedings of the 2002 Asia South Pacific Conference on Design Automation/VLSI Design. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Douglis, F., Krishnan, P., and Marsh, B. 1994. Thwarting the power-hungry disk. In Proceedings of the USENIX Winter Technical Conference. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Estrin, D., Pottie, G. J., and Srivastava, M. 2001. Instrumenting the world with wireless sensor networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Aeonstics, Speech, and Signal Processing.Google Scholar
- Flinn, J. and Satyanarayanan, M. 1999a. Energy-aware adaptation for mobile applications. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Flinn, J. and Satyanarayanan, M. 1999b. PowerScope: A tool for profiling the energy usage of mobile applications. In Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computer Systems and Applications. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Flinn, J. and Satyanarayanan, M. 2004. Managing battery lifetime with energy-aware adaptation. ACM Trans. Comput. Syst. 22, 2, 137--179. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- FreeRTOS 2007. FreeRTOS Open Source Real-Time Operating System. http://www.freertos.org/.Google Scholar
- Gast, M. S. 2002. 802.11 Wireless Networks: The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly, Sebastopol, CA. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Gaurav, M., Peter, D., Deepak, G. and Prashant, S. 2006. Ultra-low power data storage for sensor networks. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- GNU Radio. 2007. The GNU Software Radio. http://www.gnu.org/software/gnuradio/.Google Scholar
- Gonzalez, R. and Horowitz, M. 1996. Energy dissipation in general purpose microprocessors. IEEE J. Solid-State Cir. 31, 9, 1277--1284.Google Scholar
Cross Ref
- Guy, R., Greenstein, B., Hicks, J., Kapur, R., Ramanathan, N., Schoellhammer, T., Stathopoulos, T., Weeks, K., Chang, K., Girod, L. and Estrin, D. 2006. Experiences with the Extensible Sensing System (ESS). Center for Embedded Networked Sensing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
- Hai, H., Padmanabhan, P., and Kang, G. S. 2003. Design and implementation of power-aware virtual memory. In Proceedings of the USENIX Annual Technical Conference. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Hamilton, M. P., Rundel, P. W., Allen, M. A., Kaiser, W., Estrin, D. E. and Graham, E. 2007. New approaches in embedded networked sensing for terrestrial ecological observatories. Environ. Eng. Sci. 24, 2, 192--204.Google Scholar
Cross Ref
- Heath, T., Pinheiro, E., Hom, J., Kremer, U. and Bianchini, R. 2002. Application transformations for energy and performance-aware device management. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Parallel Architectures and Compilation Techniques. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Helmbold, D. P., Long, D. D. E., Sconyers, T. L. and Sherrod, B. 2000. Adaptive disk spin-down for mobile computers. Mob. Net. Appl. 5, 4, 285--297. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Heng, Z., Carla, S. E., Alvin, R. L. and Amin, V. 2002. ECOSystem: Managing energy as a first class operating system resource. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Hill, J., Szewczyk, R., Woo, A., Hollar, S., Culler, D. and Pister, K. 2000. System architecture directions for networked sensors. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, 93--104. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Huang, H., Pillai, P. and Kang, G. S. 2003. Design and implementation of power-aware virtual memory. In Proceedings of the USENIX Annual Technical Conference 2003 on USENIX Annual Technical Conference. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- IAR 2007. IAR Kickstart Kit for LPC2106. http://www.iar.com/index.php?show=12898_ENG&&page_anchor=http://www.iar.com/p12898/p12898_eng.php.Google Scholar
- Intel. 2007. Imote2. http://embedded.seattle.intel-research.net/wiki/index.php?title=Intel_Motc_2.Google Scholar
- Intel. 2002. Intel Stargate, http://platformx.sourceforge.net.Google Scholar
- Intel. Intel StrataFlash® Embedded Memory. http://download.intel.com/technology/itj/g41997/pdf/overview.pdf.Google Scholar
- Jacob, S., Nilanjan, B., Mark, D. C., and Sami, R. 2005. Turducken: Hierarchical power management for mobile devices. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Jiang, X., Dutta, P., Culler, D., and Stoica, I. 2007. Micro power meter for energy monitoring of wireless sensor networks at scale. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Johnson, D. B. and Maltz, D. A. 1996. Dynamic source routing in ad hoc wireless networks. Mob. Comput. 353.Google Scholar
- Jones, P., Shobana, P., Rymarz, D., Maschmeyer, J., Schuehler, D. V., Lockwood, J. W., and Cytron, R. K. 2000. Liquid architecture. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Paralled and Distributed Processing.Google Scholar
- Jung, P., Teixeira, T., Barton-Sweeney, A., and Savvides, A. 2007. Model-based design exploration of wireless sensor node lifetimes. In Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Wireless Sensor Networks (EWSN’07). 277--292 Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Kamerman, A. and Aben, G. 2000. Net throughput with IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs. In Proceedings of the Wireless Communications and Networking Conference.Google Scholar
- Lama, N., Ralph, K., Robert, A., Jonathan, H., and Vincent, H. 2005. The Intel\® Mote platform: A Bluetooth-based sensor network for industrial monitoring. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Lee, H. G. and Chang, N. 2003. Energy-aware memory allocation in heterogeneous non-volatile memory systems. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Linux 2007. The Linux Homepage. http://www.linux.org/.Google Scholar
- Lu, Y. and Micheli, G. D. 1999. Adaptive hard disk power management on personal computers. In Proceedings of the IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI, 50--53. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Lymberopoulos, D. and Savvides, A. 2005. XYZ: A motion-enabled, power aware sensor node platform for distributed sensor network applications. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Lymberopoulos, D., Priyantha, N. B. and Zhao, F. 2007 mPlatform: A reconfigurable architecture and efficient data sharing mechanism for modular sensor nodes. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Mahesri, A. and Vardhan, V. 2004. Power consumption breakdown on a modern laptop. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. In Power-Aware Computer Systems, vol. 3471, 165--180. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Martin, L., Lewis, G., and Deborah, E. 2006. Disruption tolerant shell. In Proceedings of the 2006 SIGCOMM Workshop on Challenged Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Micrium. 2002. MicroC/OS-II: The real-time kernel. http://micrium.com/page/products/rtus.os-ii. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Micron. 2005. 256Mb Mobile SDRAM: MT48H16M16LFBF-75. http://www.micron.com/products/partdetail?part=MT48H16M16LFBF-75.Google Scholar
- Micron. 2007. CMOS Demo Kits: MT9D131C12STCD. http://www.micron.com/products/partdetail?part=MT9D131C12STCD.Google Scholar
- Microsoft. 2006. Power Policy Configuration and Deployment in Windows Vista. http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/system/pnppwr/powermgmt/PMpolicy_Vista.mspx, Microsoft Corporation.Google Scholar
- Ozanne, C. M. P., Anhuf, D., Boulter, S. L., Keller, M., Kitching, R. L., Korner, C., Meinzer, F. C., Mitchell, A. W., Nakashizuka, T., Dias, P. L. S., Stork, N. E., Wright, S. J., and Yoshimura, M. 2003. Biodiversity meets the atmosphere: A global view of forest canopies. Sci. 301, 5630, 183--186.Google Scholar
- Pacific Silicon Sensor. 2007. Silicon Photo Diodes. http://www.pacific-sensor.com/pages/pro-sp.html.Google Scholar
- Papathanasiou, A. E. and Scott, M. L. 2003. Energy efficiency through burstiness. Mobile Computing Systems and Applications. In Proceedings of the 5th IEEE Workshop, 44--53.Google Scholar
- PCMCIA. 2007. PC Card Primer. http://www.pcmcia.org/pccard.htm.Google Scholar
- Pering, T., Agarwal, Y., Gupta, R., and Want, R. 2006. CoolSpots: Reducing the power consumption of wireless mobile devices with multiple radio interfaces. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications and Services. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Polastre, J., Szewczyk, R., and Culler, D. E. 2005. Telos: Enabling ultra-low power wireless research. In Proceedings of the Information Processing in Sensor Networks. 364--369. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Pottie, G. J. and Kaiser, W. J. 2005. Principles of Embedded Networked Systems Design. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Qinru, Q., Qing, W., and Massoud, P. 2000. Dynamic power management of complex systems using generalized stochastic Petri nets. In Proceedings of the 37th Conference on Design Automation. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Raghunathan, V., Pering, T., Want, R., Nguyen, A., and Jensen, P. 2004. Experience with a low power wireless mobile computing platform. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Ramanathan, D. and Gupta, R. 2000. System level online power management algorithms. In Proceedings of the Conference on Design, Automation and Test in Europe. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Ramanathan, D., Irani, S., and Gupta, R. 2002. An analysis of system level power management algorithms and their effects on latency. In Proceedings of IEEE Trans. Comput. Aided Des. Integra. Circuits Syst. 21, 3, 291--305. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Robin, K. and Krishnan, P. 2000. Application-driven power management for mobile communication. Wirel. Netw. 6, 4, 263--277. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Russel, C. 2002. Power Management in Windows XP. http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/using/setup/learnmore/russel_02march25.mspx.Google Scholar
- Sandy, I., Sandeep, S., and Rajesh, G. 2003. Online strategies for dynamic power management in systems with multiple power-saving states. Trans. Embed. Comput. Syst. 2, 3, 325--346. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Schott, B., Bajura, M., Czarnaski, J., Flidr, J., Tho, T., and Wang, L. 2005. A modular power-aware microsensor with >1000X dynamic power range. In Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Shih, E., Bahl, P., and Sinclair, M. J. 2002. Wake on wireless: An event driven energy saving strategy for battery operated devices. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Shnayder, V., Hempstead, M., Chen, B.-R., Allen, G. W., and Welsh, M. 2004. Simulating the power consumption of large-scale sensor network applications. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys04), 188--200. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Sony. 2007. SNC-RZ30N Network Camera. http://bssc.sel.sony.com/BroadcastandBusiness/DisplayModel?id=67347.Google Scholar
- Sorber, J., Banerjee, N., Corner, M. D., and Rollins, S. 2005. Turducken: Hierarchical power management for mobile devices. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Stathopoulos, T., Girod, L., Heidemann, J., and Estrin, D. 2005. Mote herding for tiered wireless sensor networks. Tech. Rep. 58. Center for Embedded Network Sensing, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
- Stathopoulos, T., Lukac, M., Mcintire, D., Heidemann, J., Estrin, D., and Kaiser, W. J. 2007. End-to-end routing for dual-radio sensor networks. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications.Google Scholar
- Swaminathan, V., Chakrabarty, K., and Iyengar, S. S. 2001. Dynamic I/O power management for hard real-time systems. In Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Hardware/Software Codesign. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Szewczyk, R., Mainwaring, A., Polastre, J., anderson, J., and Culler, D. 2004. An analysis of a large scale habitat monitoring application. In Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys). Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Tan, T. K., Raghunathan, A., and Jha, N. K. 2005. Energy macromodeling of embedded operating systems. Trans. Embedded Comput. Syst. 4, 1, 231--254. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Telos. 2007. TelosB Mote. http://www.xbow.com/Products/Product_pdf_files/Wireless_pdf/TelosB_Datasheet.pdf.Google Scholar
- Texas Instruments. 2007. MSP430 Ultra-Low Power Microcontrollers. http://www.ti.com/lsds/ti/microcontroller/16-bit_msp430/overview.page.Google Scholar
- TinyOS. 2007. TinyOS Community Forum. http://www.tinyos.net/.Google Scholar
- Unsal, O. S. and Koren, I. 2003. System-level power-aware design techniques in real-time systems. Proceed. IEEE 91, 7, 1055--1069.Google Scholar
Cross Ref
- Victor, S., Mark, H., Bor-Rong, C., Geoff Werner, A., and Matt, W. 2004. Simulating the power consumption of large-scale sensor network applications. In Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Waitz, M. 2003. Accounting and control of power consumption in energy-aware operating systems. Diploma thesis. Department of Computer Science, University of Erlangen-Nümberg.Google Scholar
- Weissel, A., Beutel, B. and Bellosa, F. 2002. Cooperative I/OA novel I/O semantics for energy-aware applications. In Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDT’02). 117--129. Google Scholar
Digital Library
- Zyuban, V., Brooks, D., Srinivasan, V., Gschwind, M., Bose, P., Strenski, P. N., and Emma, P. G. 2004. Integrated analysis of power and performance for pipelined microprocessors. IEEE Trans. Comput. 53, 8, 1004--1016. Google Scholar
Digital Library
Index Terms
Energy-Efficient Sensing with the Low Power, Energy Aware Processing (LEAP) Architecture
Recommendations
The low power energy aware processing (LEAP)embedded networked sensor system
IPSN '06: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on Information processing in sensor networksA broad range of embedded networked sensor (ENS) systems for critical environmental monitoring applications now require complex, high peak power dissipating sensor devices, as well as on-demand high performance computing and high bandwidth ...
etop: sensor network application energy profiling on the LEAP2 platform
IPSN '07: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Information processing in sensor networksA broad range of embedded networked sensor (ENS) systems for critical environmental monitoring applications now require complex, high peak power dissipating sensor devices, as well as on-demand high performance computing and high bandwidth ...






Comments