research-article

He Said, She Said: Communication Theory of Identity and the Challenges Men Face in the Information Systems Workplace

Published:30 July 2019Publication History
Skip Abstract Section

Abstract

The preponderance of the academic research focused on diversity in the IS field has emphasized the perspectives of women and racioethnic minorities. Recent research has found that following the appointment of a female CEO, white male top managers provided less help to colleagues, particularly those identified as minority-status (McDonald, Keeves, & Westphal, 2018). Additionally, Collison and Hearn (1994) assert that white men's universal status and their occupancy of the normative standard state have rendered them invisible as objects of analysis. To develop a more holistic view of the IS workplace, we expand the academic exploration by looking at the challenges men face in the Information Systems (IS) workplace. Using a cognitive lens, we evoke the challenges men perceive they face at work and cast them into revealed causal maps. We then repeat the process evoking women's perspectives of men's challenges. The findings are analyzed using the Communication Theory of Identity (CTI) to determine the areas of overlap and identity gaps. This study advances our understanding of the cognitive overlap (and lack thereof) regarding the challenges facing men in the IS field, and provides another step toward developing a more inclusive IS work environment.

References

  1. Allan, E. (2003). Constructing women's status: Policy discourses of university women's commission reports. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 44--72.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  2. Allen, M. W., Armstrong, D. J., Riemenschneider, C. K., & Reid, M. (2006). Making sense of the barriers women face in the IT work force: Standpoint theory, self-disclosure, and causal maps. Sex Roles, 54(11--12), 831--844.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  3. Altheide, D. L. , & Johnson, J. M. (1994). Criteria for assessing interpretive validity in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 485--499). London, UK: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  4. Armstrong, D. J. (2005). Causal mapping: A discussion and demonstration. In V. K. Narayanan & D. J. Armstrong (Eds.), Causal mapping for research in information technology (pp. 20--45). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  5. Armstrong, D., Nelson, H. J., Nelson, K. M., & Narayanan, V. K. (2010). Building the IT workforce of the future: The demand for more complex, abstract and strategic knowledge. In M. Gordon Hunter (Ed.), Strategic information systems: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1925--1941). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  6. Armstrong, D. J., Riemenschneider, C. K., Reid, M., & Allen, M. (2007). Advancement, voluntary turnover and women in IT: A cognitive study of work-family conflict. Information and Management, 44(2), 142--153. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  7. Asante, G., Sekimoto, S., & Brown, C. (2016). Becoming "black": Exploring the racialized experiences of African immigrants in the United States. Howard Journal of Communications, 27(4), 367--384.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  8. Axelrod, R. (1976). The structure of decisions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  9. Bell, M. P., Ozbilgin, M., Beauregard, T., & Surgevil, O. (2011). Diversity, voice and silence in 21st century organizations: Strategies for inclusion of sexual minorities. Human Resource Management, 50(1), 131--146.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  10. Bird, S., Litt, J., & Wang, Y. (2004). Creating status of women reports: Institutional housekeeping as "women's work". NWSA Journal, 16, 194--206.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  11. Bryson, J. M. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter: Stakeholder identification and analysis techniques. Public Management Review, 6, 21--53.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  12. Cain, C. C., & Trauth, E. M. (2017). Black men in IT: Theorizing an autoethnography of a black man's journey into IT within the United States of America. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems, 48(2), 35--51. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  13. Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Converse, S. A. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan, Jr. (Ed.), Current issues in individual and group decision making (pp. 221--246). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  14. Carley, K. M. (1997). Extracting team mental models through textual analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 533--558.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  15. Carley, K., & Palmquist, M. (1992). Extracting, representing, and analyzing mental models. Social Forces, 70(3), 601--636.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  16. Caza, B. B., Moss, S., & Vough, H. (2017). From Synchronizing to Harmonizing: The Process of Authenticating Multiple Work Identities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 0001839217733972.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  17. Chatman, J., & Flynn, R. (2001). The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5), 956--974.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  18. Collison, D., & Hearn, J. (1994). Naming men as men: Implications for work, organization and management. Gender, Work and Organization, 1, 2--22.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  19. Cota, A. A., & Dion, K. L. (1986). Salience of gender and sex composition of ad hoc groups: An experimental test of distinctiveness theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Personality Processes and Individual Differences, 50(4), 770--776.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  20. Coutu, D., & Beschloss, M. (2009). Why Teams DON'T Work. Harvard Business Review, 87(5), 98--105.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  21. Craft, N. (1995). Talking from 9 to 5. British Medical Journal, 311(7012), 1103.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  22. Crump, B. J., Logan, K. A., & McIlroy, A. (2007). Does gender still matter? A study of the views of women in the ICT industry in New Zealand. Gender, Work & Organization, 14(4), 349--370.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  23. Cukier, W., Shortt, D., & Devine, I. (2002). Gender and information technology: Implications of definitions. Journal of Information Systems Education, 13(1), 7--15.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  24. Dibberns, J., Winkler, J., & Heinzl, A. (2008). Explaining variations in client extra costs between software projects offshored to India. MIS Quarterly, 32(2), 333--366. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  25. Dwivedi, P., Joshi, A., & Misangyi, V. F. (2018). Gender-inclusive Gatekeeping: How (Mostly Male) Predecessors Influence the Success of Female CEOs. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 379--404.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  26. Eden, C. (2004). Analyzing cognitive maps to help structure issues or problems. European Journal of Operations Research, 159, 673--686.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  27. Eden, C., Ackerman, F., & Cropper, S. (1992). The analysis of cause maps. Journal of Management Studies, 29(3), 309--324.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  28. Ely, R. J. (1995). The power of demography: Women's social constructions of gender identity at work. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 589--634.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  29. Ely, R. J., & Thomas, D. A. (2001). Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(2), 229--273.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  30. Fahey, L., & Narayanan, V. K. (1989). Linking changes in revealed causal maps and environmental change: An empirical study. Journal of Management Studies, 26(4), 361--378.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  31. Fiol, C. M. (1994). Consensus, diversity, and learning in organizations. Organization Science, 5(3), 403--420. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  32. Fiol, C. M., & Huff, A. S. (1992). Maps for managers: Where are we? Where do we go from here? Journal of Management Studies, 29(3), 267--285.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  33. Ford, J. D., & Hegarty, W. H. (1984). Decision makers' beliefs about the causes and effects of structure: An exploratory study. Academy of Management Journal, 27, 271--291.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  34. Fox, M., & Colatrella, C. (2006). Participation, performance, and advancement of women in academic science and engineering: What is at issue and why. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 31, 377--386.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  35. Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking:Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility and ingroup favouritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708--724.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  36. Gallivan, M. J. (2004). Examining IT professionals' adaptation to technological change: the influence of gender and personal attributes. ACM SIGMIS Database, 35(3), 28--49. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  37. Gray, P., King, W. R., McLean, E. R., & Watson, H. J. (1994). Management of information systems (2nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  38. Gregor, S. (2006). The nature of theory in information systems. MIS Quarterly, 30(3), 611--642. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  39. Hackman, J. R. (1990). Groups that work (and those that don't): Creating conditions for effective teamwork. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  40. Hansen, H. (2006). The ethnonarrative approach. Human Relations, 59, 1049--1075.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  41. Harrison, D. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1199--1228.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  42. Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface - and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 96--107.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  43. Harwood, J., & Giles, H. (2005). Intergroup communication: Multiple perspectives. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  44. Hecht, M. L. (1993). A research odyssey: Towards the development of a communication theory of identity. Communications Monographs, 60, 76--82.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  45. Hecht, M. L. (Ed.). (1998). Communicating prejudice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  46. Hecht, M. L., & Choi, H. (2012). The communication theory of identity as a framework for health message design. Health communication message design: Theory and practice, 137--152.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  47. Hecht, M. L., Collier, M. J., & Ribeau, S. A. (1993). African American communication: Exploring identity and cultural interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  48. Hecht, M. L., Jackson, R. L., & Ribeau, S. A. (2003). African American communication: Exploring identity and culture. Routledge.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  49. Hecht, M. L., Ribeau, S., & Alberts, J. K. (2004). An Afro-American perspective on interethnic communication. In R. L. Jackson (Ed.), African American communication and identities: Essential readings (pp. 105--124). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  50. Hecht, M. L., Warren, J. R., Jung, E., & Krieger, J. L. (2005). The communication theory of identity: Development, theoretical perspective, and future directions. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 257--278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  51. Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes. London: Routledge.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  52. Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social psychology quarterly, 255--269.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  53. Howcroft, D., & Trauth, E. M. (2008). The implications of a critical agenda in gender and IS research. Information Systems Journal, 18(2) , 185--202.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  54. Howell, W. C., & Cooke, N. J. (1989). Training the human information processor: A review of cognitive models. In I.L. Goldstein (Ed.), Training and development in organizations (pp. 121--182). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  55. Huber, G. P., & Lewis, K. (2010). Cross-understanding: Implications for group cognition and performance. Academy of Management Review, 35(1), 6--26.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  56. Huff, A. S. (1990). Mapping strategic thought. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  57. Ibarra, H., Ely, R., & Kolb, D. (2013). Women rising: The unseen barriers. Harvard Business Review, 91, 60--66.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  58. Jackson, S. E., May, K. E., & Whitney, K. (1995). Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision making teams. In R. Guzzo & E. Salas (Eds.), Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 204--261). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  59. Johnson, R. D. (2011). Gender differences in e-learning: Communication, social presence and learning outcomes. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 23, 79--94. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  60. Johnson, T. E., & O'Connor, D. L. (2008). Measuring team shared understanding using the analysis-constructed shared mental model methodology. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 21(3), 113--134.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  61. Jones, K., & Fenge, L. (2017). Gifted stories: How well do we retell the stories that research participants give us? Creative Approaches to Research, 10(1), 35--51.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  62. Joseph, D., Fong Boh, W., Ang, S., & Slaughter, S. A. (2012). The Career Paths Less (or More) Traveled: A Sequence Analysis of IT Career Histories, Mobility Patterns, and Career Success. MIS Quarterly, 36(2), 427--452. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  63. Joshi, K. D., & Kuhn, K. M. (2007). What it takes to succeed in information technology consulting. Information Technology & People, 20(4), 400--424.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  64. Joshi, K. D., Trauth, E. M., Kvasney, L., Morgan, A. J., & Payton, F. C. (2017). Making black lives matter in the information technology profession: Issues, perspectives, and a call for action. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems, 48(2), 21--34. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  65. Jung, E., & Hecht, M. L. (2004). Elaborating the communication theory of identity: Identity gaps and communication outcomes. Communication Quarterly, 52(3), 265--283.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  66. Jung, E., Hecht, M. L., & Wadsworth, B. C. (2007). The role of identity in international students' psychological well-being in the United States: A model of depression level, identity gaps, discrimination, and acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31(5), 605--624.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  67. Kam, J. A., & Hecht, M. L. (2009). Investigating the role of identity gaps among communicative and relational outcomes within the grandparent-grandchild relationship: The young-adult grandchildren's perspective. Western Journal of Communication, 73(4), 456--480.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  68. Kilduff, M., Angelmar, R., & Mehra, A. (2000). Top management-team diversity and firm performance: Examining the role of cognitions. Organization Science, 11, 21--34. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  69. Kitzinger, J. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction between research participants. Sociological Health Illness, 16, 102--21.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  70. Klimoski, R., & Mohammed, S. (1994). Team mental model: Construct or metaphor. Journal of Management, 20(2), 403--437.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  71. Knoke, D., & Kuklinski, J. H. (1982). Network analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  72. Knowles, E. D., Lowery, B. S., Chow, R. M., & Unzueta, M. M. (2014). Deny, distance, or dismantle? How white Americans manage a privileged identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(6), 594--609.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  73. Koch, H., & Shultze, U. (2011). Stuck in the conflicted middle: A role-theoretic perspective on B2B e-marketplaces. MIS Quarterly, 35(1), 123--146. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  74. Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, & R.J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 333--375). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  75. Krueger, R. A. (1988). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  76. Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  77. Lee, A. S., & Baskerville, R. L. (2003). Generalizing generalizability in information systems research. Information Systems Research, 14(3), 221--243. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  78. Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2008). Online shopping recommendation mechanism and its influence on consumer decisions and behaviors: A causal map approach. Expert Systems with Applications, 35(4), 1567--1574. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  79. Lee, S. M., & Lee, C. K. (2006). IT managers' requisite skills. Communications of the ACM, 49(4), 111--114. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  80. Lee, N., & Nathan, M. (2010). Knowledge workers, cultural diversity and innovation: evidence from London. International Journal of Knowledge-Based Development, 1(1--2), 53--78.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  81. Leinhardt, G., & Smith, D. A. (1985). Expertise in mathematics instruction: Subject matter knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 247--271.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  82. Levina, N., & Ross, J. W. (2003). From the vendor's perspective: Exploring the value proposition in information technology outsourcing. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 331--364. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  83. Levina, N., & Vaast, E. (2008). Innovating or doing as told? Status differences and overlapping boundaries in offshore collaborations. MIS Quarterly, 32(2), 307--332. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  84. Lincoln, L. S., & Guba, E. G., (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  85. Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2011). Qualitative communication research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  86. Long, E., Segalo, P., & Laidlaw, C. (2016). Windows of (in) equality: Gender reflections in information technology (IT). Gender and Behaviour, 14(2), 7345--7353.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  87. Madera, J. M. (2018). Situational Perspective Taking as an Intervention for Improving Attitudes Toward Organizations that Invest in Diversity Management Programs. Journal of Business and Psychology, 33(3), 423--442.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  88. Madriz, E. (2000). Focus groups in feminist research. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 835--850). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  89. Mårtensson, L., & Hensing, G. (2012). Experiences of factors contributing to women's ability to make informed decisions about the process of rehabilitation and return to work: A focus group study. Work, 43(2), 237--248.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  90. Martin, D. M. (2004). Humor in middle management: Women negotiating the paradoxes of organizational life. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 32, 147--170.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  91. Mathieu, J. E., Heffner, T. S., Goodwin, G. F., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2005). Sealing the quality of teammates mental modes: Equifinality and normative comparisons. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 37--56.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  92. McDonald, M. L., Keeves, G. D., & Westphal, J. D. (2018). One Step Forward, One Step Back: White Male Top Manager Organizational Identification and Helping Behavior Toward Other Executives Following the Appointment of a Female or Racial Minority CEO. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 405--439.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  93. McNeese, M. D., Rentsch, J. R., & Perusich, K. (2000). Modeling, measuring, and mediating teamwork: The use of fuzzy cognitive maps and team member schema similarity to enhance BMC3I decision making. IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 2, 1081--1086.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  94. Messick, D. M., & Mackie, D. M. (1989). Intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 45--81.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  95. Miltgen, C. L., & Peyrat-guillard, D. (2014). Cultural and generational influences on privacy concerns: A qualitative study in seven European countries. European Journal of Information Systems, 23(2), 103--125.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  96. Mitchell, R. (1986). Team building by disclosure of internal frames of reference. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 22, 15--28.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  97. Mohammed, S. (2001). Toward and understanding of cognitive consensus in a group decision-making context. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 37(4), 408--425.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  98. Mohammed, S., & Dumville, B. C. (2001). Team mental models in a team knowledge framework: Expanding theory and measurement across disciplinary boundaries. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 89--106.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  99. Mohammed, S., Klimoski, R., & Rentsch, J. R. (2000). The measurement of team mental models: We have no shared schema. Organizational Research Methods, 3(2), 123--165.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  100. Morgan, D. L. (1996). Focus groups. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 129--152.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  101. Morgan, D. (1997) Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  102. Nadkarni, S. (2003). Instructional methods and mental models of students: An empirical investigation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 16, 335--351.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  103. Nadkarni, S., & Nah, F. F. (2003). Aggregated causal maps: An approach to elicit and aggregate the knowledge of multiple experts. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 12, 406--436.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  104. Nadkarni, S., & Narayanan, V. K. (2005). Validity of the structural properties of text-based causal maps: An empirical assessment. Organizational Research Methods, 8(1), 9--40.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  105. Narayanan, V. K., & Armstrong, D. J. (2005). Causal mapping for research in information technology. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  106. Narayanan, V. K., & Fahey, L. (1990). Evolution of revealed causal maps during decline: A case study of Admiral. In A.S. Huff (Ed.), Mapping strategic thought (pp. 109--134). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  107. Nelson, K. M., Nadkarni, S., Narayanan, V. K., & Ghods, M. (2000). Understanding software operations support expertise: A revealed causal mapping approach. MIS Quarterly, 24(3), 475--507. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  108. Nili, A., Tate, M., & Johnstone, D. (2017). A framework and approach for analysis of focus group data in information systems research. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 40(1), 1--21.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  109. O'Neill, J. W. (2012). Using focus groups as a tool to develop a hospitality work-life research study. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(6), 873--885.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  110. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  111. Pawlowski, S. D., Kaganer, E. A., & Cater, J. J., III. (2007). Focusing the research agenda on burnout in IT: Social representations of burnout in the profession. European Journal of Information Systems, 16(5), 612--627.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  112. Payton, F. C. (2016). Cultures of participation - for students, by students. Information Systems Journal, 26(4), 319--338. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  113. Peek, L., & Fothergill, A. (2009). Using focus groups: Lessons from studying daycare centers, 9/11, and Hurricane Katrina. Qualitative Research, 9(1), 31--59.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  114. Pinola, M. (2015). This graphic explains how much time and money it takes to develop a mobile app. Lifehacker. Retrieved on 07/23/2018 from: https://lifehacker.com/this-graphic-explains-how-much-time-and-money-it-takes-1735164869.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  115. Platt, L. F., & Lenzen, A. L. (2013). Sexual orientation microaggressions and the experience of sexual minorities. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(7), 1011--1034.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  116. Rainer, R. K., Jr., Laosethakul, K., & Astone, M.K. (2003). Are gender perceptions of computing changing over time? The Journal of Computer Information Systems, 43(4), 108--114.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  117. Ramirez, A. G. & Shepperd J. (1988). The use of focus groups in health research. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care. Supplement 1, 81--90.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  118. Reid, M. F., Allen, M. W., Armstrong, D. J., & Riemenschneider, C. K. (2010). Perspectives on challenges facing women in IS: The cognitive gender gap. European Journal of Information Systems, 19(5), 526--539.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  119. Reid, M. F., Allen, M. W., Riemenschneider, C. K., & Armstrong, D. J. (2006, April). Affective commitment in the public sector: the case of IT employees. In Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGMIS CPR conference on computer personnel research: Forty four years of computer personnel research: achievements, challenges & the future (pp. 321--332). ACM. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  120. Rentsch, J. R., & Zelno, J. A. (2003). The role of cognition in managing conflict to maximize team effectiveness. In M.A. West, D. Tjosvold, & K.G. Smith (Eds.), International handbook of organizational teamwork and cooperative working (pp. 131--150). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  121. Riemenschneider, C., Armstrong, D. J., Reid, M., & Allen, M. (2006). Barriers facing women in the IT work force. The DATA BASE for Advances in Information Systems, 37(4), 58--78. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  122. Sanday, P. R. (1979). The ethnographic paradigm(s). Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(4), 527--538.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  123. Shin, S. J., Kim, T., Lee, J., & Bian, L. (2012). Cognitive team diversity and individual team member creativity: A cross-level interaction. Academy of Management Journal, 55, 197--212.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  124. Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhardt, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011). Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37, 1262--1289.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  125. Siau, K., & Tan, X. (2005). Improving the quality of conceptual modeling using cognitive mapping techniques. Data & Knowledge Engineering, 55, 343--365. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  126. Stets, J., & Burke, P. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63, 224--237.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  127. Stets, J. E., & Carter, M. J. (2012). A theory of the self for the sociology of morality. American Sociological Review, 77(1), 120--140.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  128. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter group behavior in S Worchel & WG Austin (Eds) Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  129. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking from 9 to 5: How women's and men's conversational styles affect who gets heard, who gets credit, and what gets done at work. New York, NY: William Morrow and Company, Inc.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  130. Tannen, D. (1995). The power of talk: Who gets heard and why. Harvard Business Review, 73(5), 138--148.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  131. Trauth, E. M. (2002). Odd girl out: An individual differences perspective on women in the IT profession. Information Technology & People, 15, 98--118.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  132. Trauth, E. M., Nielsen, S. H., & Von Hellens, L. A. (2003). Explaining the IT gender gap: Australian stories for the new millennium. Journal of research and practice in information technology, 35(1), 7.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  133. Truman, G. E., & Baroudi, J. J. (1994). Gender differences in the information systems managerial ranks: An assessment of potential discriminatory practices. MIS Quarterly, 18(2), 129--142. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  134. United States Census Bureau. (2015). Quick Facts. Retrieved fromhttps://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  135. Urquhart, C., & Fernandez, W. (2006). Grounded theory method: The researcher as blank slate and other myths. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems (31).Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  136. Urquhart, C., Lehmann, H., & Myers, M. D. (2010). Putting the 'theory' back into grounded theory: Guidelines for grounded theory studies in information systems. Information Systems Journal, 20, 357--381.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  137. Van Fenema, P. C., Koppius, O. R., & Van Baalen, P. J. (2007). Implementing packaged enterprise software in multi-site firms: Intensification of organizing and learning. European Journal of Information Systems, 16(5), 584--598.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  138. van Knipperberg, D., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Homan, A. C. (2004). Work group diversity and group performance: An integrative model and research agenda. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 1008--1022.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  139. Wardynski, D. J. (2017). How long does it take to build custom software for a business? Brainspire. Retrieved on 07/23/2018 from http://soltech.net/how-long-does-it-take-to-build-custom-software/.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  140. Watts, M. & Ebbutt D. (1987). More than the sum of the parts: Research methods in group interviewing. British Educational Research Journal, 13, 25--34.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  141. Weber, P. S., & Manning, M. R. (2001). Cause maps, sensemaking, and planned organizational change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 37(2), 227--251.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  142. Windeler, J. B., & Riemenschneider, C. K. (2016). The influence of ethnicity on organizational commitment and merit pay of IT workers: The role of leader support. Information Systems Journal, 26(2), 157--190. Google ScholarGoogle ScholarDigital LibraryDigital Library
  143. Woodfield, R. (2000). Women, work, and computing. Cambridge University Press.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  144. Yap, M., & Konrad, A. M. (2009). Gender and racial differentials in promotions: Is there a sticky floor, a mid-level bottleneck, or a glass ceiling? Industrial Relations, 64(4), 593--619.Google ScholarGoogle ScholarCross RefCross Ref
  145. Yin, R. K. (1984). Case study research: Design and methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google ScholarGoogle Scholar
  146. Zerubavel, E. (1996, September). Lumping and splitting: Notes on social classification. In Sociological Forum (Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 421--433). Springer Netherlands. Zinkhan, G. M., & Braunsberger, K. (2004). The complexity of consumers' cognitive structures and its relevance to consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research, 57, 575--582Google ScholarGoogle Scholar

Index Terms

  1. He Said, She Said: Communication Theory of Identity and the Challenges Men Face in the Information Systems Workplace

      Recommendations

      Comments

      Login options

      Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

      Sign in

      Full Access

      PDF Format

      View or Download as a PDF file.

      PDF

      eReader

      View online with eReader.

      eReader
      About Cookies On This Site

      We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website.

      Learn more

      Got it!